|
THE SUNDANESE PEOPLE OF WEST JAVA, INDONESIA
In 1998, the Sundanese numbered about 33 million,
most of whom lived in West Java.
An estimated 1 million lived in other provinces. The 1990 census
found that West Java had the greatest population of any province
in Indonesia with 35.3 million people. In addition, the urban population
stood at 34.51% , a truly significant number who could be reached
with various media. Despite this, the Sundanese are one of the least
known people groups in the world. They are often confused with the
Sudanese of Africa and their name has even been misspelled in encyclopedias.
Some spell checks on computer programs also change it to Sudanese.
This short history of pre-20th century is intended
to introduce you to the Sundanese of West Java, Indonesia. In this
century, their history has been intertwined with that of the rising
nationalism which eventually became modern Indonesia.
Creation
Myths
Unlike many people groups, there are no creation myths or records
of other myths describing the origins of the Sundanese. No one knows
where they came from nor how they settled West Java. Probably in
the early centuries after Christ, a small number of Sundanese tribal
groups roamed the mountain jungles of West Java practicing a swidden
(slash and burn) culture. All the earliest myths speak of the Sundanese
being field workers rather than paddy farmers. To
top
Original
Belief System
Their beliefs formed the foundation of what is now called the original
Sundanese religion. Although it is impossible to know for sure what
these beliefs were, the best indications are found in the oldest
epic poems (Wawacan) and among the remote Badui tribe. The Badui
call their religion Sunda Wiwitan [earliest Sundanese]. Not only
are the Badui almost totally free of Islamic elements (except those
imposed over the past 20 years), they also display very few Hindu
characteristics. Some Sanskrit words and Hindu related myths do
remain. In his monograph, Robert Wessing quotes several sources
which show for the Sundanese in general, “The Indian belief
system did not totally displace the indigenous beliefs, even at
the court centers” (Cosmology and Social Behavior in a West
Java Settlement. Ohio University Center for International Studies.
1978:16). Based on a system of taboos, the Badui religion is animistic.
They believe spirits inhabit the rocks, trees, streams and other
inanimate objects. These spirits do good or evil depending on one’s
observance of the taboos. Thousands of taboos apply to every aspect
of daily life. To top
Influence
of Hinduism
No one knows just how or when Hindu patterns began to develop in
Indonesia nor who brought them. It is agreed they came from India;
probably from the southern coast. But the character of the Hindu
presence in Java raises more questions than it answers. The main
Hindu centers, for example, were not in the coastal trading cities
but rather inland. It seems clear that religious ideas rather than
armies conquered the indigenous mind. One theory holds that the
power of the Hindu/Indian rulers attracted Indonesians to the spirit-magic
beliefs of the Hindu religion. Somehow many aspects of the Hindu
belief system permeated the mind set of the Sundanese as well as
that of the Javanese.
The oldest known Sundanese literary work is Caritha
Parahyangan. It was written about 1000 AD and glorifies the Javanese
king Sanjaya as a great warrior. Sanjaya was a follower of Shivaism
so we know that the Hindu faith was strongly entrenched by AD 700.
Oddly enough, about this time a second Indian religion, Buddhism,
made a brief appearance on the scene. Shortly after the Shivaist
temples were built on the Dieng plateau of Central Java, the magnificent
Borobudur monument was constructed near Jogjakarta to the south.
The Borobudur temple is the largest Buddhist monument ever built
in the world. It is thought that Buddhism was the official religion
of the Shailendra Kingdom in Central Java from 778-870. Hinduism
never faltered in other parts of Java and continued strong until
the 13th century. A rigid class structure developed in the societies.
The Sanskrit influence was widespread in the languages of the Java
peoples. The idea of divinity and kingship blurred so that they
became indistinguishable.
Among the Sundanese as well as the Javanese, Hinduism
mixed with the ancient ancestor worship. The custom of celebrating
ritual days following the death of a family member continues until
today. The Hindu view of life and death enhanced the meaning of
rituals like this. With infinite variations on the theme of the
spiritual body co-existing with the natural body, Indonesians have
incorporated Hindu philosophy into their own configurations. J.C.
van Leur theorizes that Hinduism helps solidify Sundanese cultural
forms. Magic and spirit beliefs, in particular, have absolute value
in Sundanese life. One of the experts in Sundanese customs, Prawirasuganda,
mentions scores of taboos similar to those of the Badui which relate
to all the important aspects of the life cycle ceremonies of the
Sundanese people. To top
Javanese
Influence
According to Bernard Vlekke, the noted historian, West Java was
a backward section of Java as late as the 11th century. Great kingdoms
had arisen in East and Central Java but little had changed among
the Sundanese. Hindu influence, while definite, was never as strong
among the Sundanese as it was among the Javanese. However, as insignificant
as West Java was, it had a king at the time of Airlangga of East
Java; about 1020 AD. But Sundanese kings came increasingly under
the sway of the great Javanese kingdoms. Kertanegara (1268-92) was
the Javanese king at the conclusion of the Indonesian Hindu period.
After him, the kings of Majapahit ruled until 1478 but they were
not significant after 1389. However, this Javanese influence continued
and deepened the impact of Hinduism on the Sundanese. To
top
Pajajaran
Near Bogor
In 1333, the kingdom of Pajajaran existed near modern day Bogor.
It was subdued by the Javanese kingdom of Majapahit under the famous
prime minister, Gadjah Mada. According to the romantic tale Kidung
Sunda, the Sundanese princess was supposed to be married to Ayam
Wuruk, king of Majapahit. However, Gadjah Mada opposed this marriage
and after the Sundanese had gathered for the wedding, he changed
the conditions. When the Sundanese king and nobles heard the princess
would become only a concubine and there would be no wedding as promised,
they fought against overwhelming odds until all were dead. Although
enmity between the Sundanese and Javanese continued for many years
after this episode (and may still continue), never-the-less the
Javanese exercised influence on the Sundanese.
Until recently, the Pajajaran Kingdom was thought
to be the oldest Sundanese kingdom. Even though it existed as late
as 1482-1579, much of the activity of its nobles is shrouded in
legend. Siliwangi, the Hindu king of Pajajaran, was overthrown by
a plot between the Muslims of Banten, Ceribon, and Demak in league
with his own cousin. With Siliwangi’s fall, Islam took control
of much of West Java. A key factor in Islam’s success was the
advance of the Demak Kingdom of East Java into West Java by 1540.
From the east and west, Islam penetrated to the Priangan (central
highlands) and encompassed all the Sundanese. To
top
Advance of Islam
There was a Muslim presence in the archipelago as early as 1100
but there was little Islamic growth before Malacca on the Malay
straits became a Muslim stronghold in 1414. Aceh in North Sumatra
began expanding its Islamic influence about 1416. Muslim scholars
push the date of Islam’s advent in Indonesia back almost to
the time of Muhammad. But some of the incidents they record were
probably not significant.
The real advent of Islam seems to be when Arab and Persian missionaries
entered Java in the early 1400’s and gradually gained converts
among the ruling classes. To top
Fall
of Majapahit
By 1450, Islam had gained a foothold in the court of Majapahit in
East Java. Van Leur feels this was aided by a disintegration of
the Brahman culture in India. Surabaya (Ampel) became the center
of Islamic learning and from there famous Arab entrepreneurs spread
their power. The fall of the Javanese kingdom of Majapahit in 1468
has been linked with intrigue in the royal family due to the fact
that a royal son, Raden Patah, had converted to Islam. Unlike the
Hindu leaders, Islamic missionaries encouraged military power to
seal their advantages. No foreign army invaded Java to force the
people to believe. But coercion was involved in getting the rulers
to accept the faith of Muhammad. Both in East Java and West Java,
rebellion in the royal families was fomented by the Islamic military
pressure. As the nobility changed allegiances, the people followed
suit. Despite this, we must remember as Vlekke points out that religious
wars seldom occurred throughout the history of Java. To
top
The
Demak Kingdom
Raden Patah settled in Demak which became the first Islamic kingdom
on Java. It reached the zenith of its power by 1540 and in its time
subdued peoples as far away as West Java. Bernard Vlekke says Demak
expanded towards West Java because Javanese politics had little
interest in Islam. In the meantime Sunan Gunung Jati, a Javanese
prince, sent his son Hasanudin from Cirebon to make extensive conversions
among the Sundanese. In 1526, both Banten and Sunda Kelapa (Jakarta)
were under the control of Sunan Gunung Jati who became the first
sultan of Banten. This alignment of Cirebon with Demak brought much
of West Java under the sway of Islam. “In the second quarter
of the 16th century, all the northern coast of West Java was under
the power of Islamic leaders and the populace had become Muslim”
(Edi S. Ekadjati, Masyarakat Sunda dan Kebudayaannya. Jakarta: Girimukti
Pasaka, 1984:93). Since population statistics of 1780 list about
260,000 people in West Java, we can assume the amount was much less
in the 16th century. This shows that Islam entered when the Sundanese
were a small tribe located primarily on the coasts and in the river
basins like the Ciliwung, Citarum, and Cisadane Rivers. To
top
Nature
of Islam
As Islam came to the Sundanese, the five major pillars of the religion
were emphasized but in many other areas of religious thought a syncretism
developed with the original Sundanese world view. The Indonesian
historian Soeroto believes that Islam was prepared for this in India.
“Islam which first came to Indonesia contained many elements
of Iranian and Indian philosophies. But it was precisely those components
which made the way easy for Islam here” (Indonesia Ditengah-tengah
Dunia dari Abad Keabad, Vol. 2, 1968:177-178). Scholars believe
Islam accepted that the customs which benefit society should be
retained. Thus Islam was mixed with many Hindu and original customs
of the people. The marriage of these religious strains is commonly
called “the religion of Java.” The subsequent mixture
of Islam with multiple belief systems (most recently called aliran
kebatinan) makes an accurate description of present day religion
among the Sundanese very complex. To top
Dutch
Colonialism
By the time the Dutch arrived in Indonesia in 1596, Islam had become
the dominant influence among the nobility and leadership levels
of Javanese and Sundanese societies.
Simply put, the Dutch warred with Islamic power centers for control
of the island trade and this created an enmity that extended the
Crusades conflict into the Indonesian arena. In 1641, they took
Malacca from the Portuguese and gained control of the sea lanes.
Dutch pressure on the kingdom of Mataram was such that they were
able to wrest special economic rights to the highlands (Priangan)
area of West Java. By 1652, large areas of West Java were their
suppliers. This began 300 years of Dutch exploitation in West Java
which only ended with the advent of World War II.
Events of the 18th century present a litany of Dutch
errors in the social, political and religious fields. All of the
lowlands of West Java suffered under oppressive conditions imposed
by local rulers. An example of this was the Banten area. In 1750,
the people revolted against their sultanate which was controlled
by an Arabian woman, “Ratu Sjarifa.” According to Ayip
Rosidi, she was a tool of the Dutch. However, Vlekke holds that
“Kiai Tapa,” the leader, was a Hindu and that the rebellion
was directed more against Islamic leaders than Dutch colonialists.
[It is difficult to reconstruct history from any source as each
faction had self interests which colored the way events were recorded.
To top
Religion
Not An Issue Until 1815
During the first 200 years of the Dutch rule in Indonesia, few of
the problems were linked to religion. This was because the Dutch
did practically nothing to bring Christianity to the indigenous
people. Until 1800, there was a “company church” which
was a “church” only in name for it served only the needs
of Dutch employees of the East India Company. The Company administered
all Dutch activity in the Indonesian archipelago. There were no
schools for native children until well into the 19th century so
the people had no way to hear the gospel.
At the turn of the 19th century, the East India Company
was bankrupt and Napoleon occupied Holland. In 1811, England took
charge of the Dutch East Indies. One of their initiatives was to
open the country to the missionary enterprise. Despite this momentous
occasion, little was done in Java until near the middle of the century.
However, some foundations were laid in East and Central Java which
became models for work among the Sundanese. To top
Culture
System
The most famous political error made by the Dutch was inaugurated
in 1830. It was called the Culture System but should more properly
be called a system of slavery. This system intensified the government’s
efforts to extract more produce from the land. It exacted the produce
of one-fifth of a peasant’s land in lieu of taxes. By instituting
new crops such as sugar, coffee and tea, it put a greater area of
land under cultivation. The economic impact on villages was dramatic
and the social ramifications were significant. Across the middle
of the century, private investment in West Java land began to grow
and plantations came into being. The land was taken out of the peasant’s
control and was given to big land owners. By 1870, an agrarian law
was necessary to protect the people’s rights over the land.
To top
Population
Growth in Java
In 1851, there were 786,000 Sundanese and 217 Europeans in West
Java. In 30 years the population doubled and the Priangan became
a focal point of trade goods with an accompanying influx of western
businessmen and Asian (mostly Chinese) immigrants. At the beginning
of the 19th century, it was estimated that seven/eighths of Java
was covered with forests or fallow land. In 1815, all of Java and
Madura had only five million inhabitants. That increased to 28 million
by the end of the century and reached 108 million in 1990. Population
growth among the Sundanese is probably the most important non religious
factor in their history. To top
Consolidation
of Islamic Influence
As more land was opened and new villages arose, Islam sent teachers
along with the people so that Islam increased in influence in every
habitat of the Sundanese. The Islamic teachers competed with the
Dutch controlled Sundanese nobility for leadership among the people.
By the end of the century, Islam was the acknowledged formal religion
of the Sundanese. The strong spirit beliefs of many kinds were considered
part of Islam. Christianity, which came to the Sundanese in the
mid-century had little effect outside of the small Sundanese Christian
enclaves. To top
20th
Century Reform
The story of this century began with reform in many areas. Influenced
by sharp criticism in many quarters, the Dutch government instituted
an “Ethical Policy” in 1901. The reforms were mainly economic,
covering agricultural development, health, and education. The people
felt alienated from their own traditional nobility and Islam became
their chief spokesman against the great imperialistic expansion
which was taking place in the world through the economic thrusts
of European countries. Islam was one of the major religions which
sought to adjust to the modern world. The Reformist movement which
began in Cairo in 1912 was exported everywhere. It created two major
groups in Indonesia. One was Sareket Islam which was created for
the trade sector and was nationalistic. The other was Muhammadiyah
which was not political but struggled to meet the educational, health,
and family needs of the people. To top
No Characteristic
Sundanese History
What stands out in the history of the Sundanese is their association
with other groups. The Sundanese have little characteristic history
of their own. Ayip Rosidi outlines five barriers which make it difficult
to define the character of the Sundanese. Among these, he
gives the Javanese as an example of a people group who have a clear
identity in contrast to the Sundanese who lack one.
Historically, the Sundanese have not played any major
role in national affairs. Some very important events have transpired
in West Java but usually they were not characteristic Sundanese
events. Few Sundanese have been leaders either in conception or
implementation of nationalistic activities. There are a lot of Sundanese
and they have been involved in many events in the twentieth century
but, statistically speaking, they have not been significant. In
this century, the history of the Sundanese is essentially the history
of the Javanese. To top
Twentieth
Century Religious Orientation
Religion among the Sundanese is like their other cultural forms.
In general, it mirrors that of the Javanese. The important difference
is a stronger attachment to Islam than one finds among the Javanese.
Although this attachment is not as fierce as that of the Madurese
or Bugis peoples, it is important enough to merit special attention
when one looks at Sundanese history.
One very important aspect of Sundanese religions
is the dominance of pre-Islamic beliefs. They constitute the major
focus of myth and ritual in the Sundanese life cycle ceremonies.
These ceremonies of the tali paranti (customary law and traditions)
have always been oriented primarily around worship of the goddess
Dewi Sri (Nyi Pohaci Sanghiang Sri). Not as great as Dewi Sri but
also an important spirit power is Nyi Ratu Loro Kidul. She is the
queen of the south sea and is the patroness of all fishermen. Along
the south coast of Java, people fear and appease this goddess to
this day. Another example is Siliwangi. This is a spirit power which
is a force in Sundanese life. He represents another territorial
power in the cosmological structure of the Sundanese. To
top
Magic
Spells
In the worship of these deities, systems of magic spells also play
a major part in dealing with various spirit powers. One such system
is Ngaruat Batara Kala which was designed to elicit favor from the
god Batara Kala in thousands of personal situations. People also
call on numberless spirits which include those of deceased people
as well as place spirits (jurig) of different kinds. Many graves,
trees, mountains and other similar places are sacred to the people.
At these spots, one may enlist supernatural powers to restore health,
increase wealth, or enhance one’s life in some way.
To top
Spirit
Practitioners
To aid the people in their spiritual needs, there are practitioners
of the magic arts called dukun. These shamans are active in healing
or in mystic practices like numerology. They claim contact with
supernatural forces which do their bidding. Some of these dukun
will exercise black magic but most are considered beneficial to
the Sundanese. From the cradle to the grave few important decisions
are made without recourse to the dukun. Most people carry charms
on their bodies and keep them in propitious places on their property.
Some even practice magic spells independently of the dukun. Most
of this activity lies in an area outside of Islam and is in opposition
to Islam. But these people are still counted as Muslims. To
top
Conclusion
Understanding the Sundanese today is a great challenge to historians,
anthropologists, and religious scholars. Even the leading Sundanese
scholars are loath to try to delineate the character and contributions
of the people. Perhaps, in many ways, Sundanese have been absorbed
into the new Indonesian culture of the past 50 years. My personal
opinion is we will soon observe an ethnic renewal among the Sundanese
accompanied by a new definition of what it means to be Sundanese.
To top
Roger, 1999
|
.jpg){kind=small}
